1947 Judaica PICTURE DICTIONARY Israel JEWISH BOOK Textile WEAVING Hebrew RARE

Description: DESCRIPTION : This exceptional EXTREMELY RARE and RICHLY ILLUSTRATED book DICTIONARY regarding the TERMINOLOGY of WEAVING and TEXTILE in ERETZ ISRAEL ( Then also refered to as Palestine ) in 1947 - " MILON LEMUNACHEI ARIGA" ( Dictionary for terminology of WEAVING and TEXTILE ) was published almost 75 years ago , In 1947 in Tel Aviv ERETZ ISRAEL ( Then also refered to as PALESTINE ) , A year decades before the birth of the independent Israel State and its 1948 WAR of INDEPENDENCE . The RICHLY ILLUSTRATED Jewish HEBREW book holds around FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS of WEAVING related TEXTILE , MACHINERY , TOOLS , PARTS , FABRICS, LOOMS, REEDS , COMBS, WINDING, THREADS , SPINDLES, PICKS, SHUTTLES etc . The ILLUSTRATED items are accompanied by HEBREW , ENGLISH , FRENCH and GERMAN terminology . Actualy being an ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY to WEAVING - KNITTING - TEXTILE TERMS. Definitely a must for every collector of ERETZ ISRAEL illustrated history as well as WEAVING - TEXTILE metalwhare and tools etc. Original SC . 5 x 6.5" . 172 illustrated pp. English ,German , French and Hebrew. Very good condition. clean. tightly bound . Very nicely preserved copy. ( Pls look at scan for accurate AS IS images ) Book will be sent inside a protective packaging . AUTHENTICITY : The book is fully guaranteed ORIGINAL from 1947 ( Dated ) , It is NOT a recently printed edition or a reprint , It holds a life long GUARANTEE for its AUTHENTICITY and ORIGINALITY. PAYMENTS : Payment method accepted : Paypal & All credit cards. SHIPPMENT : Shipp worldwide via registered airmail is $ 29 . Book will be sent inside a protective packaging . Will be sent around 5-10 days after payment . Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft or filling. (Weft is an old English word meaning "that which is woven"; compare leave and left.[a]) The method in which these threads are inter-woven affects the characteristics of the cloth.[1] Cloth is usually woven on a loom, a device that holds the warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band which meets this definition of cloth (warp threads with a weft thread winding between) can also be made using other methods, including tablet weaving, back strap loom, or other techniques without looms.[2] The way the warp and filling threads interlace with each other is called the weave. The majority of woven products are created with one of three basic weaves: plain weave, satin weave, or twill. Woven cloth can be plain (in one colour or a simple pattern), or can be woven in decorative or artistic design. Contents 1 Process and terminology 2 History 2.1 Middle East and Africa 2.2 The Americas 2.3 East Asia 2.4 Southeast Asia 2.5 Medieval Europe 2.6 Industrial Revolution 3 The role of the weaver 3.1 Hand loom weavers 3.2 Power loom weavers 3.3 Craft weavers 3.4 Bauhaus weaving workshop 4 Other cultures 4.1 Weaving in the American Colonies (1500–1800) 4.2 American Southwest 4.3 Amazon cultures 5 Computer science 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Process and terminology[edit] Main articles: Loom and Power loom In general, weaving involves using a loom to interlace two sets of threads at right angles to each other: the warp which runs longitudinally and the weft (older woof) that crosses it. One warp thread is called an end and one weft thread is called a pick. The warp threads are held taut and in parallel to each other, typically in a loom. There are many types of looms.[3]weaving is a type of art Weaving can be summarized as a repetition of these three actions, also called the primary motions of the loom. Shedding: where the warp threads (ends) are separated by raising or lowering heald frames (heddles) to form a clear space where the pick can pass Picking: where the weft or pick is propelled across the loom by hand, an air-jet, a rapier or a shuttle Beating-up or battening: where the weft is pushed up against the fell of the cloth by the reed[4] The warp is divided into two overlapping groups, or lines (most often adjacent threads belonging to the opposite group) that run in two planes, one above another, so the shuttle can be passed between them in a straight motion. Then, the upper group is lowered by the loom mechanism, and the lower group is raised (shedding), allowing to pass the shuttle in the opposite direction, also in a straight motion. Repeating these actions form a fabric mesh but without beating-up, the final distance between the adjacent wefts would be irregular and far too large. The secondary motions of the loom are the: Let off motion: where the warp is let off the warp beam at a regulated speed to make the filling even and of the required design Take up motion: takes up the woven fabric in a regulated manner so that the density of filling is maintained The tertiary motions of the loom are the stop motions: to stop the loom in the event of a thread break. The two main stop motions are the Warp stop motion Weft stop motion The principal parts of a loom are the frame, the warp-beam or weavers beam, the cloth-roll (apron bar), the heddles, and their mounting, the reed. The warp-beam is a wooden or metal cylinder on the back of the loom on which the warp is delivered. The threads of the warp extend in parallel order from the warp-beam to the front of the loom where they are attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or group of threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye) in a heddle. The warp threads are separated by the heddles into two or more groups, each controlled and automatically drawn up and down by the motion of the heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement of the heddles is controlled by "cams" which move up the heddles by means of a frame called a harness; in larger patterns the heddles are controlled by a dobby mechanism, where the healds are raised according to pegs inserted into a revolving drum. Where a complex design is required, the healds are raised by harness cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an opening (shed) is made between the threads of warp, through which the pick is inserted. Traditionally the weft thread is inserted by a shuttle.[4][5] On a conventional loom, the weft thread is carried on a pirn, in a shuttle that passes through the shed. A handloom weaver could propel the shuttle by throwing it from side to side with the aid of a picking stick. The "picking" on a power loom is done by rapidly hitting the shuttle from each side using an overpick or underpick mechanism controlled by cams 80–250 times a minute.[4] When a pirn is depleted, it is ejected from the shuttle and replaced with the next pirn held in a battery attached to the loom. Multiple shuttle boxes allow more than one shuttle to be used. Each can carry a different colour which allows banding across the loom. Weaving pattern cards used by Skye Weavers, Isle of Skye, Scotland The rapier-type weaving machines do not have shuttles, they propel the weft by means of small grippers or rapiers that pick up the filling thread and carry it halfway across the loom where another rapier picks it up and pulls it the rest of the way.[6] Some carry the filling yarns across the loom at rates in excess of 2,000 metres per minute. Manufacturers such as Picanol have reduced the mechanical adjustments to a minimum, and control all the functions through a computer with a graphical user interface. Other types use compressed air to insert the pick. They are all fast, versatile and quiet.[7] The warp is sized in a starch mixture for smoother running. The loom warped (loomed or dressed) by passing the sized warp threads through two or more heddles attached to harnesses. The power weavers loom is warped by separate workers. Most looms used for industrial purposes have a machine that ties new warps threads to the waste of previously used warps threads, while still on the loom, then an operator rolls the old and new threads back on the warp beam. The harnesses are controlled by cams, dobbies or a Jacquard head. A 3/1 twill weave, as used in denim The raising and lowering sequence of warp threads in various sequences gives rise to many possible weave structures: Plain weave: plain, and hopsacks, poplin, taffeta,[8] poult-de-soie, pibiones and grosgrain Twill weave: these are described by weft float followed by warp float, arranged to give diagonal pattern; examples are 2/1 twill, 3/3 twill, or 1/2 twill. These are softer fabrics than plain weaves.[9] Satin weave: satins and sateens[10] Complex computer-generated interlacings, such as Jacquard fabric Pile fabrics: fabrics with a surface of cut threads (a pile), such as velvets and velveteens[10] Both warp and weft can be visible in the final product. By spacing the warp more closely, it can completely cover the weft that binds it, giving a warp faced textile such as repp weave.[8] Conversely, if the warp is spread out, the weft can slide down and completely cover the warp, giving a weft faced textile, such as a tapestry or a Kilim rug. There are a variety of loom styles for hand weaving and tapestry.[8] History[edit] Weaving in ancient Egypt There are some indications that weaving was already known in the Paleolithic Era, as early as 27,000 years ago. An indistinct textile impression has been found at the Dolní Věstonice site.[11] According to the find, the weavers of the Upper Palaeolithic were manufacturing a variety of cordage types, produced plaited basketry and sophisticated twined and plain woven cloth. The artifacts include imprints in clay and burned remnants of cloth.[12] The oldest known textiles found in the Americas are remnants of six finely woven textiles and cordage found in Guitarrero Cave, Peru. The weavings, made from plant fibres, are dated between 10100 and 9080 BCE.[13][14] Middle East and Africa[edit] Weaving using the long cotton strands, typical for the Dogon culture of Mali The earliest known Neolithic textile production in the Old World is supported by a 2013 find of a piece of cloth woven from hemp, in burial F. 7121 at the Çatalhöyük site[15] suggested to be from around 7000 B.C.[16][17] Further finds come from the Neolithic civilisation preserved in the pile dwellings in Switzerland.[18] Another extant fragment from the Neolithic was found in Fayum, at a site dated to about 5000 BCE.[19] This fragment is woven at about 12 threads by 9 threads per centimetre in a plain weave. Flax was the predominant fibre in Egypt at this time (3600 BCE) and had continued popularity in the Nile Valley, though wool became the primary fibre used in other cultures around 2000 BCE.[citation needed][b] Weaving was known in all the great civilisations, but no clear line of causality has been established. Early looms required two people to create the shed and one person to pass through the filling. Early looms wove a fixed length of cloth, but later ones allowed warp to be wound out as the fell progressed. The weavers were often children or slaves. Weaving became simpler when the warp was sized. The Americas[edit] Main articles: Textile arts of indigenous peoples of the Americas and Andean textiles Example of weaving characteristic of Andean civilizations The Indigenous people of the Americas wove textiles of cotton throughout tropical and subtropical America and in the South American Andes of wool from camelids, primarily domesticated llamas and alpacas. Cotton and the camelids were both domesticated by about 4,000 BCE.[20][21] American weavers are "credited with independently inventing nearly every non-mechanized technique known today."[22] In the Inca Empire of the Andes, women did most of the weaving, using backstrap looms to make small pieces of cloth and vertical frame and single-heddle looms for larger pieces.[23] Andean textile weavings were of practical, symbolic, religious, and ceremonial importance and used as currency, tribute, and as a determinant of social class and rank. Sixteenth-century Spanish colonists were impressed by both the quality and quantity of textiles produced by the Inca Empire.[24] Some of the techniques and designs are still in use in the 21st century.[25] The oldest-known weavings in North America come from the Windover Archaeological Site in Florida. Dating from 4900 to 6500 B.C. and made from plant fibres, the Windover hunter-gatherers produced "finely crafted" twined and plain weave textiles.[26][27] East Asia[edit] A woman weaving. Ukiyo-e woodblock print by Yōshū Chikanobu, 1890 The weaving of silk from silkworm cocoons has been known in China since about 3500 BCE. Silk that was intricately woven and dyed, showing a well developed craft, has been found in a Chinese tomb dating back to 2700 BCE. Silk weaving in China was an intricate process that was very involved. Men and women, usually from the same family, had their own roles in the weaving process. The actual work of weaving was done by both men and women.[28] Women were often weavers since it was a way they could contribute to the household income while staying at home.[29] Women would usually weave simpler designs within the household while men would be in charge of the weaving of more intricate and complex pieces of clothing.[30] The process of sericulture and weaving emphasized the idea that men and women should work together instead of women being subordinate to men. Weaving became an integral part of Chinese women's social identity. Several rituals and myths were associated with the promotion of silk weaving, especially as a symbol of female power. Weaving contributed to the balance between men and women's economic contributions and had many economic benefits.[29][31] There were many paths into the occupation of weaver. Women usually married into the occupation, belonged to a family of weavers and or lived in a location that had ample weather conditions that allowed for the process of silk weaving. Weavers usually belonged to the peasant class.[32] Silk weaving became a specialized job requiring specific technology and equipment that was completed domestically within households.[33] Although most of the silk weaving was done within the confines of the home and family, there were some specialized workshops that hired skilled silk weavers as well. These workshops took care of the weaving process, although the raising of the silkworms and reeling of the silk remained work for peasant families. The silk that was woven in workshops rather than homes were of higher quality, since the workshop could afford to hire the best weavers.[34] These weavers were usually men who operated more complicated looms, such as the wooden draw-loom.[35] This created a competitive market of silk weavers. The quality and ease of the weaving process depended on the silk that was produced by the silk worms. The easiest silk to work with came from breeds of silk worms that spun their cocoons so that it could be unwound in one long strand.[30] The reeling, or unwinding of silk worm cocoons is started by placing the cocoons in boiling water in order to break apart the silk filaments as well as kill the silk worm pupae. Women would then find the end of the strands of silk by sticking their hand into the boiling water. Usually this task was done by girls aged eight to twelve, while the more complex jobs were given to older women.[36] They would then create a silk thread, which could vary in thickness and strength from the unwound cocoons.[30] After the reeling of the silk, the silk would be dyed before the weaving process began. There were many different looms and tools for weaving. For high quality and intricate designs, a wooden draw-loom or pattern loom was used.[35] This loom would require two or three weavers and was usually operated by men. There were also other smaller looms, such as the waist loom, that could be operated by a single woman and were usually used domestically.[35] Sericulture and silk weaving spread to Korea by 200 BCE, to Khotan by 50 CE, and to Japan by about 300 CE. The pit-treadle loom may have originated in India though most authorities establish the invention in China.[37] Pedals were added to operate heddles. By the Middle Ages such devices also appeared in Persia, Sudan, Egypt and possibly the Arabian Peninsula, where "the operator sat with his feet in a pit below a fairly low-slung loom". In 700 CE, horizontal looms and vertical looms could be found in many parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. In Africa, the rich dressed in cotton while the poorer wore wool.[38] By the 12th century it had come to Europe either from the Byzantium or Moorish Spain where the mechanism was raised higher above the ground on a more substantial frame.[38][39] Southeast Asia[edit] T'nalak cloth by T'boli dream weavers. Like most indigenous pre-colonial Filipino textiles, they were typically made from abacá fibers. In the Philippines, numerous pre-colonial weaving traditions exist among different ethnic groups. They used various plant fibers, mainly abacá or banana, but also including tree cotton, buri palm (locally known as buntal) and other palms, various grasses (like amumuting and tikog), and barkcloth.[40][41] The oldest evidence of weaving traditions are Neolithic stone tools used for preparing barkcloth found in archeological sites in Sagung Cave of southern Palawan and Arku Cave of Peñablanca, Cagayan. The latter has been dated to around 1255–605 BCE.[42] Medieval Europe[edit] Weaver, Nürnberg, c. 1425 The predominant fibre was wool, followed by linen and nettlecloth for the lower classes. Cotton was introduced to Sicily and Spain in the 9th century. When Sicily was captured by the Normans, they took the technology to Northern Italy and then the rest of Europe. Silk fabric production was reintroduced towards the end of this period and the more sophisticated silk weaving techniques were applied to the other staples.[43] The weaver worked at home and marketed his cloth at fairs.[43] Warp-weighted looms were commonplace in Europe before the introduction of horizontal looms in the 10th and 11th centuries. Weaving became an urban craft and to regulate their trade, craftsmen applied to establish a guild. These initially were merchant guilds, but developed into separate trade guilds for each skill. The cloth merchant who was a member of a city's weavers guild was allowed to sell cloth; he acted as a middleman between the tradesmen weavers and the purchaser. The trade guilds controlled quality and the training needed before an artisan could call himself a weaver.[43] By the 13th century, an organisational change took place, and a system of putting out was introduced. The cloth merchant purchased the wool and provided it to the weaver, who sold his produce back to the merchant. The merchant controlled the rates of pay and economically dominated the cloth industry.[43] The merchants' prosperity is reflected in the wool towns of eastern England; Norwich, Bury St Edmunds and Lavenham being good examples. Wool was a political issue.[44] The supply of thread has always limited the output of a weaver. About that time, the spindle method of spinning was replaced by the great wheel and soon after the treadle-driven spinning wheel. The loom remained the same but with the increased volume of thread it could be operated continuously.[43] The 14th century saw considerable flux in population. The 13th century had been a period of relative peace; Europe became overpopulated. Poor weather led to a series of poor harvests and starvation. There was great loss of life in the Hundred Years War. Then in 1346, Europe was struck with the Black Death and the population was reduced by up to a half. Arable land was labour-intensive and sufficient workers no longer could be found. Land prices dropped, and land was sold and put to sheep pasture. Traders from Florence and Bruges bought the wool, then sheep-owning landlords started to weave wool outside the jurisdiction of the city and trade guilds. The weavers started by working in their own homes then production was moved into purpose-built buildings. The working hours and the amount of work were regulated. The putting-out system had been replaced by a factory system.[43] The migration of the Huguenot Weavers, Calvinists fleeing from religious persecution in mainland Europe, to Britain around the time of 1685 challenged the English weavers of cotton, woollen and worsted cloth, who subsequently learned the Huguenots' superior techniques.[45] Industrial Revolution[edit] Main article: Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution By 1892, most cotton weaving was done in similar weaving sheds, powered by steam. Before the Industrial Revolution, weaving was a manual craft and wool was the principal staple. In the great wool districts a form of factory system had been introduced but in the uplands weavers worked from home on a putting-out system. The wooden looms of that time might be broad or narrow; broad looms were those too wide for the weaver to pass the shuttle through the shed, so that the weaver needed an expensive assistant (often an apprentice). This ceased to be necessary after John Kay invented the flying shuttle in 1733. The shuttle and the picking stick sped up the process of weaving.[46] There was thus a shortage of thread or a surplus of weaving capacity. The opening of the Bridgewater Canal in June 1761 allowed cotton to be brought into Manchester, an area rich in fast flowing streams that could be used to power machinery. Spinning was the first to be mechanised (spinning jenny, spinning mule), and this led to limitless thread for the weaver. Edmund Cartwright first proposed building a weaving machine that would function similar to recently developed cotton-spinning mills in 1784, drawing scorn from critics who said the weaving process was too nuanced to automate.[47] He built a factory at Doncaster and obtained a series of patents between 1785 and 1792. In 1788, his brother Major John Cartwight built Revolution Mill at Retford (named for the centenary of the Glorious Revolution). In 1791, he licensed his loom to the Grimshaw brothers of Manchester, but their Knott Mill burnt down the following year (possibly a case of arson). Edmund Cartwight was granted a reward of £10,000 by Parliament for his efforts in 1809.[48][49] However, success in power-weaving also required improvements by others, including H. Horrocks of Stockport. Only during the two decades after about 1805, did power-weaving take hold. At that time there were 250,000 hand weavers in the UK.[50] Textile manufacture was one of the leading sectors in the British Industrial Revolution, but weaving was a comparatively late sector to be mechanised. The loom became semi-automatic in 1842 with Kenworthy and Bulloughs Lancashire Loom. The various innovations took weaving from a home-based artisan activity (labour-intensive and man-powered) to steam driven factories process. A large metal manufacturing industry grew to produce the looms, firms such as Howard & Bullough of Accrington, and Tweedales and Smalley and Platt Brothers. Most power weaving took place in weaving sheds, in small towns circling Greater Manchester away from the cotton spinning area. The earlier combination mills where spinning and weaving took place in adjacent buildings became rarer. Wool and worsted weaving took place in West Yorkshire and particular Bradford, here there were large factories such as Lister's or Drummond's, where all the processes took place.[51] Both men and women with weaving skills emigrated, and took the knowledge to their new homes in New England, to places like Pawtucket and Lowell. Woven 'grey cloth' was then sent to the finishers where it was bleached, dyed and printed. Natural dyes were originally used, with synthetic dyes coming in the second half of the 19th century. The need for these chemicals was an important factor in the development of the chemical industry.[citation needed] The invention in France of the Jacquard loom in about 1803, enabled complicated patterned cloths to be woven, by using punched cards to determine which threads of coloured yarn should appear on the upper side of the cloth. The jacquard allowed individual control of each warp thread, row by row without repeating, so very complex patterns were suddenly feasible. Samples exist showing calligraphy, and woven copies of engravings. Jacquards could be attached to handlooms or powerlooms.[citation needed] The role of the weaver[edit] A distinction can be made between the role and lifestyle and status of a handloom weaver, and that of the powerloom weaver and craft weaver. The perceived threat of the power loom led to disquiet and industrial unrest. Well known protests movements such as the Luddites and the Chartists had hand loom weavers amongst their leaders. In the early 19th century power weaving became viable. Richard Guest in 1823 made a comparison of the productivity of power and hand loom weavers: A very good Hand Weaver, a man twenty-five or thirty years of age, will weave two pieces of nine-eighths shirting per week, each twenty-four yards long, and containing one hundred and five shoots of weft in an inch, the reed of the cloth being a forty-four, Bolton count, and the warp and weft forty hanks to the pound, A Steam Loom Weaver, fifteen years of age, will in the same time weave seven similar pieces.[52] He then speculates about the wider economics of using powerloom weavers: ...it may very safely be said, that the work done in a Steam Factory containing two hundred Looms, would, if done by hand Weavers, find employment and support for a population of more than two thousand persons.[53] Hand loom weavers[edit] Hand loom weaving was done by both genders but men outnumbered women partially due to the strength needed to batten.[54][55] They worked from home sometimes in a well lit attic room. The women of the house would spin the thread they needed, and attend to finishing. Later women took to weaving, they obtained their thread from the spinning mill, and working as outworkers on a piecework contract. Over time competition from the power looms drove down the piece rate and they existed in increasing poverty. Power loom weavers[edit] Further information: Queen Street Mill Power loom workers were usually girls and young women. They had the security of fixed hours, and except in times of hardship, such as in the cotton famine, regular income. They were paid a wage and a piece work bonus. Even when working in a combined mill, weavers stuck together and enjoyed a tight-knit community.[56] The women usually minded the four machines and kept the looms oiled and clean. They were assisted by 'little tenters', children on a fixed wage who ran errands and did small tasks. They learnt the job of the weaver by watching.[55] Often they would be half timers, carrying a green card which teacher and overlookers would sign to say they had turned up at the mill in the morning and in the afternoon at the school.[57] At fourteen or so they come full-time into the mill, and started by sharing looms with an experienced worker where it was important to learn quickly as they would both be on piece work.[58] Serious problems with the loom were left to the tackler to sort out. He would inevitably be a man, as were usually the overlookers. The mill had its health and safety issues, there was a reason why the women tied their hair back with scarves. Inhaling cotton dust caused lung problems, and the noise was causing total hearing loss. Weavers would mee-maw[59][60] as normal conversation was impossible. Weavers used to 'kiss the shuttle', that is, suck thread though the eye of the shuttle. This left a foul taste in the mouth due to the oil, which was also carcinogenic.[61] Craft weavers[edit] Pedal powered loom used by Skye Weavers, Isle of Skye, Scotland Arts and Crafts was an international design philosophy that originated in England[62] and flourished between 1860 and 1910 (especially the second half of that period), continuing its influence until the 1930s.[63] Instigated by the artist and writer William Morris (1834–1896) during the 1860s[62] and inspired by the writings of John Ruskin (1819–1900), it had its earliest and most complete development in the British Isles[63] but spread to Europe and North America.[64] It was largely a reaction against mechanisation and the philosophy advocated of traditional craftsmanship using simple forms and often medieval, romantic or folk styles of decoration. Hand weaving was highly regard and taken up as a decorative art. Bauhaus weaving workshop[edit] In the 1920s the weaving workshop of the Bauhaus design school in Germany aimed to raise weaving, previously seen as a craft, to a fine art, and also to investigate the industrial requirements of modern weaving and fabrics.[65] Under the direction of Gunta Stölzl, the workshop experimented with unorthodox materials, including cellophane, fiberglass, and metal.[66] From expressionist tapestries to the development of soundproofing and light-reflective fabric, the workshop's innovative approach instigated a modernist theory of weaving.[66] Former Bauhaus student and teacher Anni Albers published the seminal 20th-century text On Weaving in 1965.[67] Other notables from the Bauhaus weaving workshop include Otti Berger, Margaretha Reichardt, and Benita Otte. Other cultures[edit] Weaving in the American Colonies (1500–1800)[edit] Colonial America relied heavily on Great Britain for manufactured goods of all kinds. British policy was to encourage the production of raw materials in colonies and discourage manufacturing. The Wool Act 1699 restricted the export of colonial wool.[68][69] As a result, many people wove cloth from locally produced fibres. The colonists also used wool, cotton and flax (linen) for weaving, though hemp could be made into serviceable canvas and heavy cloth. They could get one cotton crop each year; until the invention of the cotton gin it was a labour-intensive process to separate the seeds from the fibres. A plain weave was preferred as the added skill and time required to make more complex weaves kept them from common use. Sometimes designs were woven into the fabric but most were added after weaving using wood block prints or embroidery. American Southwest[edit] Main article: Navajo weaving Weaving a traditional Navajo rug Textile weaving, using cotton dyed with pigments, was a dominant craft among pre-contact tribes of the American southwest, including various Pueblo peoples, the Zuni, and the Ute tribes. The first Spaniards to visit the region wrote about seeing Navajo blankets. With the introduction of Navajo-Churro sheep, the resulting woolen products have become very well known. By the 18th century the Navajo had begun to import yarn with their favorite color, Bayeta red. Using an upright loom, the Navajos wove blankets worn as garments and then rugs after the 1880s for trade. Navajo traded for commercial wool, such as Germantown, imported from Pennsylvania.[citation needed] Under the influence of European-American settlers at trading posts, Navajos created new and distinct styles, including "Two Gray Hills" (predominantly black and white, with traditional patterns), "Teec Nos Pos" (colorful, with very extensive patterns), "Ganado" (founded by Don Lorenzo Hubbell), red dominated patterns with black and white, "Crystal" (founded by J. B. Moore), Oriental and Persian styles (almost always with natural dyes), "Wide Ruins," "Chinlee," banded geometric patterns, "Klagetoh," diamond type patterns, "Red Mesa" and bold diamond patterns. Many of these patterns exhibit a fourfold symmetry, which is thought to embody traditional ideas about harmony, or hózhó.[citation needed] Amazon cultures[edit] Among the indigenous people of the Amazon basin densely woven palm-bast mosquito netting, or tents, were utilized by the Panoans, Tupinambá, Western Tucano, Yameo, Záparoans, and perhaps by the indigenous peoples of the central Huallaga River basin (Steward 1963:520). Aguaje palm-bast (Mauritia flexuosa, Mauritia minor, or swamp palm) and the frond spears of the Chambira palm (Astrocaryum chambira, A.munbaca, A.tucuma, also known as Cumare or Tucum) have been used for centuries by the Urarina of the Peruvian Amazon to make cordage, net-bags hammocks, and to weave fabric. Among the Urarina, the production of woven palm-fiber goods is imbued with varying degrees of an aesthetic attitude, which draws its authentication from referencing the Urarina's primordial past.[citation needed] Urarina mythology attests to the centrality of weaving and its role in engendering Urarina society. The post-diluvial creation myth accords women's weaving knowledge a pivotal role in Urarina social reproduction. [70] Even though palm-fiber cloth is regularly removed from circulation through mortuary rites, Urarina palm-fiber wealth is neither completely inalienable, nor fungible since it is a fundamental medium for the expression of labor and exchange. The circulation of palm-fiber wealth stabilizes a host of social relationships, ranging from marriage and fictive kinship (compadrazco, spiritual compeership) to perpetuating relationships with the deceased.[71] Computer science[edit] The Nvidia Parallel Thread Execution ISA derives some terminology (specifically the term Warp to refer to a group of concurrent processing threads) from historical weaving traditions.[72] See also[edit] Fashion portal Basket weaving Persian weave Petate Textile manufacturing terminology Weaving (mythology) ***** In knitting, weaving is a family of techniques used for several purposes in knitting. The most common use for the technique is when working stranded color patterns, in which two yarns are alternated to certain of the stitches to create patterns. Weaving is used to attach the horizontal strands of yarn that pass unused behind stitches formed with the other yarn to the inside of the fabric. This is usually done to prevent overlong "floats" on the inside to prevent snags and create an even tension in the fabric. The technique can also be used for decorative purposes if it is done on every stitch, in which case the "inside" of the fabric is used on the outside Weaving in, or "inlay", is a related but different technique that is used to thread an extra yarn(s) into the fabric without knitting it. The woven yarn(s) need not be the same thickness or color as the knitted yarn, and almost always (but not necessarily) follow the horizontal rows (courses) of knitting. Because the extra yarn simply passes back and forth between the knitted stitches, it can be pulled out unless it is secured in some way at the sides. The resulting fabric is more like a woven texture than a knit because the extra strand reduces its elasticity. Methods[edit] To weave in for stranded color patterns, the yarn being used to form stitches is passed first below and then above the other as it is wrapped around the needle, which catches the yarn not in use against the inside of the fabric. For the Inlay method of weaving the extra yarn(s) is passed in back or in front of each stitch as it is knitted, similar to the slip-stitch knitting technique. In another technique, dip stitches are used to secure the woven yarn(s). The method may be necessary if the woven yarn(s) are much thicker than any one row of knitting. Other meanings of "weaving" in knitting[edit] Weaving has at least two other meanings in knitting. First, weaving in the ends of the yarn means burying the free ends of the yarn(s) in the knitted fabric to secure them, by passing them in and around the stitches. Second, weaving is sometimes used as a synonym for grafting. *** BEGINNER’S GUIDE TO WEAVING If you are new to weaving and need help getting started, then you’re in the right place! Hi, I’m Kate. I’m the person behind this blog. Back when I started trying to weave, there weren’t many resources available. I put a lot of time into researching old books and experimenting and wanted to share what I had learned. Weaving is such a fun and meaningful art form that I wanted it to be available to others to enjoy too. I started The Weaving Loom as a way to share weaving techniques that I have learned through my experiences. This blog post is a round-up of a lot of the topics I’ve covered over the years. Especially the topics that are important to beginner’s. Terminology Let’s start from the beginning! A Loom is the structure that you use to give your weave support and tension as you work. There are a few different types of looms and my blog focuses on how to use a lap loom. The warp thread is the thread that is strung over the loom vertically, and holds the tension while you weave. This is the backbone of your weave. The weft thread is the thread that you weave between, around, and all over the warp threads. It creates your patterns and design in the weave. These are the most important terms for understanding weaving, but I have pictures and a few more weaving terms here. Lap Looms Of course you’ll need a loom to start weaving. If you already have a lap loom, then great! Any of my tutorials can work on any lap loom. If you’re having trouble understanding how to do something on your specific loom then feel free to reach out to me and I’ll help the best I can . If you don’t yet have a loom, then no problem. I have two ways to make your own loom: Make a frame into a loom – doing this gave me a huge 23” x 30” loom! Make a loom out of cardboard – really easy and can be made from cardboard you already have around the house. I also have some great frame looms for beginner’s in my shop Weaving Tools When starting out it is hard to know what tools you do and don’t need, and trust me you don’t need much. I’ve written on some of the basic weaving tools and some alternatives that might be in your home right now. I’m also including some of the yarn supplies I love. What is a Tapestry Beater and how does it work? The Tapestry Needle The Benefits of a Shed Stick My favorite warp thread My favorite hand-spun/hand-dyed yarn shop Amanda J French and yarn shop Hedgehog Fibres Warping a loom (starting) Now you’re really getting somewhere. I have a few posts on how to warp different looms. There are many different looking lap looms, but in my experience they warp up in one of two ways: How to Warp a Frame Loom How to Warp a Notched/Tabbed/Peg Loom Weaving Techniques This is the fun part of weaving! All the beauty and creativity go here, this is where you make your magic. I have posted on a bunch on weaving techniques and have already made a round-up of just the techniques here. I also have a free beginner’s pattern that I send out when you sign up for my weekly newsletter and I made a Weave Along of fun lacy patterns, that you can follow along here. And I hope you won’t need this, but incase you do, here’s my Top 7 Weaving Issues & Fixes Finishing your weave (taking off the loom) Now that you created something beautiful and unique to you, it’s time to take it off the loom so you can share it with the world. I have posted a lot of different ways to finish your weaves, whether you’re cutting your weave off the loom or using your warp loops to hang. How to Finish a Weave The Perfect Way to Tuck End Threads 6 Ways to Hang a Weave Don’t forget what you can hang your weaves from Whoa, that’s a lot of info! Hopefully you’ve made it to the bottom of this post. This will definitely get you started on your weaving journey!! So now I would love to hear your story, how did you first discover the art of weaving? Have you woven before or is this your first time starting? I love to hear how others have found this art form that I love. ****Weaving FABRIC PRODUCTION WRITTEN BY: The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica See Article History Weaving, production of fabric by interlacing two sets of yarns so that they cross each other, normally at right angles, usually accomplished with a hand- or power-operated loom. Eṣfahān, Iran: carpet weaving Woman weaving a large carpet, Eṣfahān, Iran. © Egmont Strigl—imageBROKER/Shutterstock.com READ MORE ON THIS TOPIC textile: Woven fabrics Weaving is the process of combining warp and weft components to make a woven structure. The components need neither be… A brief treatment of weaving follows. For further discussion, see textile: Production of fabric. In weaving, lengthwise yarns are called warp; crosswise yarns are called weft, or filling. Most woven fabrics are made with their outer edges finished in a manner that avoids raveling; these are called selvages. They run lengthwise, parallel to the warp yarns. The three basic weaves are plain, twill, and satin. Fancy weaves—such as pile, Jacquard, dobby, and leno—require more complicated looms or special loom attachments for their construction. Three types of weaves: plain, twill, and satin. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 00:00 02:38 The manner in which the yarns are interlaced determines the type of weave. The yarn count and number of warp and filling yarns to the square inch determine the closeness or looseness of a weave. Woven fabrics may also be varied by the proportion of warp yarns to filling yarns. Some effects are achieved by the selection of yarns or of combinations of yarns. Get exclusive access to content from our 1768 First Edition with your subscription. Subscribe today In the plain weave each filling yarn passes over and under the warp yarns, with the order reversed in alternating rows. Fabrics made in the plain weave include percale, muslin, and taffeta. Ribbed effects in such fabrics as faille and bengaline are produced by employing heavier yarns for either the warp or the filling. In the basket weave one or more filling yarns are passed alternately over and under two or more warp yarns, as seen in monk’s cloth. Twill weaves are made by interlacing the yarns in a manner producing diagonal ribs, ridges, or wales across the fabric. Wales may run from the upper right to the lower left of the fabric, or the reverse. The herringbone weave has wales running both ways. Twill fabrics include denim, gabardine, and flannel. Satin weaves have a sheen produced by exposing more warps than fillings on the right side of the fabric. The exposed warps are called floats. In the sateen weave the process is reversed, and the exposed fillings form the floats. The amount of twist in the yarns and the length of the floats produce variations. Fabrics made in these weaves include slipper satin, satin crepe, and various sateen types. Pile weaves produce fabrics with raised, dense surfaces. They can be made by weaving extra warp yarns over wires, producing loops that are cut as the wires are withdrawn; by adjusting loom tension to produce loops that are frequently left uncut; by using extra filling yarns to produce floats that are cut after weaving; or by weaving two cloths face to face, binding them together with an extra set of warps that form the pile when the fabrics are cut apart. Examples of woven pile fabrics include velvet, plush, terry cloth, and many of the synthetic furs. Jacquard weaves, produced on a special loom, are characterized by complex woven-in designs, often with large design repeats or tapestry effects. Fabrics made by this method include brocade, damask, and brocatelle. Dobby weaves, requiring a special loom attachment, have small, geometric, textured, frequently repeated woven-in designs, as seen in bird’s-eye piqué. Leno weaves, also made with a special attachment, are usually lightweight and open, giving a lacelike appearance, and are made by twisting adjacent warp yarns around each other, then passing the filling yarn through the twisted warps. Marquisette, casement cloth, and mosquito netting are produced by this method. *** A textile[1] is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibers (yarn or thread). Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, or other materials to produce long strands.[2] Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting , tatting, felting, or braiding. The related words "fabric"[3] and "cloth"[4] and "material" are often used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibres, including carpeting and geotextiles. A fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods (garments, etc.). Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric that has been processed. Alpaca textiles at the Otavalo Artisan Market in the Andes Mountains, Ecuador Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Uses 4 Sources and types 4.1 Animal 4.2 Plant 4.3 Mineral 4.4 Synthetic 5 Production methods 6 Treatments 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading Etymology[edit] The word 'textile' is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning 'woven', from textus, the past participle of the verb texere, 'to weave'.[5] The word 'fabric' also derives from Latin, most recently from the Middle French fabrique, or 'building, thing made', and earlier as the Latin fabrica 'workshop; an art, trade; a skilful production, structure, fabric', which is from the Latin faber, or 'artisan who works in hard materials', from PIE dhabh-, meaning 'to fit together'.[6] The word 'cloth' derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz (compare O.Frisian 'klath', Middle Dutch 'cleet', Dutch 'kleed', Middle High German 'kleit', and German 'kleid', all meaning "garment").[7] History[edit] Main article: History of clothing and textiles The Banton Cloth, the oldest existing example of warp ikat in Southeast Asia, displayed at the National Museum of the Philippines. The cloth is most likely made by the native Asi people of northewest Romblon. The first clothes, worn at least 70,000 years ago and perhaps much earlier, were probably made of animal skins and helped protect early humans from the elements. At some point, people learned to weave plant fibers into textiles. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times.[8][9] Textile machinery at the Cambrian Factory, Llanwrtyd, Wales in the 1940s The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques. Uses[edit] Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. In the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses include flags, backpacks, tents, nets, handkerchiefs, cleaning rags, transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails, and parachutes; textiles are also used to provide strengthening in composite materials such as fibreglass and industrial geotextiles. Textiles are used in many traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting and embroidery. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (e.g. implants), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection), protective clothing (e.g. against heat and radiation for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection, and bullet proof vests). In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met. Woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of "self-powering nanosystems" using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements.[10][11] Sources and types[edit] Textiles are made from many materials, with four main sources: animal (wool, silk), plant (cotton, flax, jute, bamboo), mineral (asbestos, glass fibre), and synthetic (nylon, polyester, acrylic, rayon). The first three are natural. In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest microfibre made of strands thinner than one denier to the sturdiest canvas. Textile manufacturing terminology has a wealth of descriptive terms, from light gauze-like gossamer to heavy grosgrain cloth and beyond. Animal[edit] Animal textiles are commonly made from hair, fur, skin or silk (in the silkworms case). Wool refers to the hair of the domestic sheep or goat, which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with a wax mixture known as lanolin (sometimes called wool grease), which is waterproof and dirtproof.[citation needed] Woollen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibres which have been combed to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for warm clothing. Cashmere, the hair of the Indian cashmere goat, and mohair, the hair of the North African angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness. Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicuña wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets, and other warm coverings. Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbit. Qiviut is the fine inner wool of the muskox. Wadmal is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 1000~1500 CE. Sea silk is an extremely fine, rare, and valuable fabric that is made from the silky filaments or byssus secreted by a gland in the foot of pen shells. Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are two main types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by the Bombyx Mori, and 'wild silk' such as Tussah silk (wild silk). Silkworm larvae produce the first type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves. Around four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.[12] Plant[edit] Close-up view of a Barong Tagalog made with piña fiber in the Philippines. Grass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope. In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibres from the plant are utilized. Coir (coconut fibre) is used in making twine, and also in floormats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking. Straw and bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is kapok. Fibres from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and nettle are used in making paper. Cotton, flax, jute, hemp, modal and even bamboo fibre are all used in clothing. Piña (pineapple fibre) and ramie are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fibres such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fibre and fabric very similar to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fibre has also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other fibres like hemp or flax. The inner bark of the lacebark tree is a fine netting that has been used to make clothing and accessories as well as utilitarian articles such as rope. Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, velvets, and taffetas. Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fibre known as alginate is produced and is used as a holding fibre; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area. Rayon is a manufactured fabric derived from plant pulp. Different types of rayon can imitate the feel and texture of silk, cotton, wool, or linen. Fibres from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibres. Mineral[edit] Asbestos and basalt fibre are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, "transite" panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets. Glass fibre is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated with Teflon to produce beta cloth, a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United States space suits since 1968.[verification needed] Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold and jewellery. Hardware cloth (US term only) is a coarse woven mesh of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standard window screening, but heavier and with a more open weave. Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as in emery cloth, a layer of emery abrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, "sand cloth" is a U.S. term for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery cloth or coarse sandpaper. Synthetic[edit] A variety of contemporary fabrics. From the left: evenweave cotton, velvet, printed cotton, calico, felt, satin, silk, hessian, polycotton Woven tartan of Clan Campbell, Scotland Embroidered skirts by the Alfaro-Nùñez family of Cochas, Peru, using traditional Peruvian embroidery methods[13] Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the manufacture of geotextiles. Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton. Aramid fibre (e.g. Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour. Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools,[14] including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them. Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose. Thicker nylon fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing. Spandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane product that can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to make activewear, bras, and swimsuits. Olefin fibre is a fibre used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin fibres is sold under the trade name Tyvek. Ingeo is a polylactide fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration. Lurex is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment. Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or casein fibre cloth was developed during World War I in Germany, and further developed in Italy and America during the 1930s.[15] Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as a biodegradable, renewable synthetic fibre.[16] Carbon fibre is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such as carbon fibre reinforced plastic. The fibres are made from polymer fibres through carbonization. A. C. Lawrence Leather Co. c. 1910 Peabody, Massachusetts, US Production methods[edit] Main articles: Textile manufacturing and Textile industry Top five exporters of textiles—2013 ($ billion) China 274 India 40 Italy 36 Germany 35 Bangladesh 28 Source:[17] Weaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longer threads (called the warp) with a set of crossing threads (called the weft). This is done on a frame or machine known as a loom, of which there are a number of types. Some weaving is still done by hand, but the vast majority is mechanized. Knitting, looping, and crocheting involve interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on a knitting needle, needle, or on a crochet hook, together in a line. The processes are different in that knitting has several active loops at one time, on the knitting needle waiting to interlock with another loop, while Looping and crocheting never have more than one active loop on the needle. Knitting can be performed by machine, but crochet can only be performed by hand.[18] Spread Tow is a production method where the yarn are spread into thin tapes, and then the tapes are woven as warp and weft. This method is mostly used for composite materials; spread tow fabrics can be made in carbon, aramide, etc. Braiding or plaiting involves twisting threads together into cloth. Knotting involves tying threads together and is used in making tatting and macrame. Lace is made by interlocking threads together independently, using a backing and any of the methods described above, to create a fine fabric with open holes in the work. Lace can be made by either hand or machine. Carpets, rugs, velvet, velour, and velveteen are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, creating a tufted layer known as a nap or pile. Felting involves pressing a mat of fibres together, and working them together until they become tangled. A liquid, such as soapy water, is usually added to lubricate the fibres, and to open up the microscopic scales on strands of wool. Nonwoven textiles are manufactured by the bonding of fibres to make fabric. Bonding may be thermal or mechanical, or adhesives can be used. Bark cloth is made by pounding bark until it is soft and flat. Treatments[edit] A double ikat weaving made by the Tausug people from Sulu, made of banana leaf stalk fiber (Abacá). Textiles are often dyed, with fabrics available in almost every colour. The dyeing process often requires several dozen gallons of water for each pound of clothing.[19] Coloured designs in textiles can be created by weaving together fibres of different colours (tartan or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (embroidery), creating patterns by resist dyeing methods, tying off areas of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dyeing), or drawing wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik), or using various printing processes on finished fabric. Woodblock printing, still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at least 220 CE in China. Textiles are also sometimes bleached, making the textile pale or white. Brilliantly dyed traditional woven textiles of Guatemala, and woman weaving on a backstrap loom Textiles are sometimes finished by chemical processes to change their characteristics. In the 19th century and early 20th century starching was commonly used to make clothing more resistant to stains and wrinkles. Eisengarn, meaning "iron yarn" in English, is a light-reflecting, strong material invented in Germany in the 19th century. It is made by soaking cotton threads in a starch and paraffin wax solution. The threads are then stretched and polished by steel rollers and brushes. The end result of the process is a lustrous, tear-resistant yarn which is extremely hardwearing.[20][21] Since the 1990s, with advances in technologies such as permanent press process, finishing agents have been used to strengthen fabrics and make them wrinkle free.[22] More recently, nanomaterials research has led to additional advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons developing permanent treatments based on metallic nanoparticles for making textiles more resistant to things such as water, stains, wrinkles, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.[23] Textiles receive a range of treatments before they reach the end-user. From formaldehyde finishes (to improve crease-resistance) to biocidic finishes and from flame retardants to dyeing of many types of fabric, the possibilities are almost endless. However, many of these finishes may also have detrimental effects on the end user. A number of disperse, acid and reactive dyes (for example) have been shown to be allergenic to sensitive individuals.[24] Further to this, specific dyes within this group have also been shown to induce purpuric contact dermatitis.[25] Although formaldehyde levels in clothing are unlikely to be at levels high enough to cause an allergic reaction,[26] due to the presence of such a chemical, quality control and testing are of utmost importance. Flame retardants (mainly in the brominated form) are also of concern where the environment, and their potential toxicity, are concerned.[27] Testing for these additives is possible at a number of commercial laboratories, it is also possible to have textiles tested for according to the Oeko-tex certification standard which contains limits levels for the use of certain chemicals in textiles products. See also[edit] Bangladesh University of Textiles Bangladesh textile industry Bettsometer Cotton List of textile fibres Maya textiles Fibre art Quipu Realia (library science) Smart textiles Textile arts Textile manufacturing (terminology) Textile museum Textile preservation Textile printing Textile recycling Textile Research Centre, Leiden, the Netherlands Textiles of Lampung / Mexico / Oaxaca Timeline of clothing and textiles technology Units of textile measurement List of fabric names . ebay4844

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